Yin and Yang: Actually general concepts from ancient
Chinese philosophy, not specific to Taoism. 2
fundamental forces in nature. These forces should be in
harmony. Disharmony leads to rebellion, floods, disease.
WORLD RELIGIONS - SUMMARY
'WESTERN' (REALLY MIDDLE EASTERN) RELIGIONS:
1. Judaism
Demographic: about 13 million followers, mostly in U.S., Israel, and Russia
Origin: Ancient Israel (Palestine)
Beliefs:
The god of the Jews: Jehovah or Yahweh (not his actual name). Created the world. Has an overall plan for the world. Has chosen the Jewish people as his agents.
Abraham was promised he would become the father of a great nation, his descendants would be numerous like the stars, and they would have the land of Canaan. The 'patriarchs': Abraham & sons & grandsons. If the patriarchs existed, they were in the 2nd millenium B.C.
Part of worship & obedience to god involved animal sacrifices, circumcision, and keeping the Sabbath.
The Exodus: The descendants of Abraham were enslaved by the Egyptians. God spoke to Moses through a burning bush in the desert, commanding him to lead the Israelites out of Egypt, which he did, with God's help: (a) the ten plagues on the Egyptians, (b) the parting of the Red Sea. Then God gave the 10 commandments to Moses on Mt. Sinai. There's also an elaborate system of laws governing every area of life in Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.
God's covenant with the Jews: The Jews would worship God & obey his laws. In return, the Jews become his 'chosen people', whom he looks after.
After a period of wandering, the Israelites entered Canaan and destroyed the Canaanites, per God's commandment. See e.g., Joshua 11:14-15:
"The Israelites carried off for themselves all the plunder and livestock of these cities, but all the people they put to the sword until they completely destroyed them, not sparing anyone that breathed. As the Lord commanded his servant Moses, so Moses commanded Joshua, and Joshua did it; he left nothing undone of all that the Lord commanded Moses."
Under David (first King of the Israelites), Jerusalem becomes the capitol of Israel. His successor, Solomon, establishes a temple. Worship becomes more formal & institutionalized.
The Ark of the Covenant: contained relics from the Exodus, kept in Solomon's temple.
Later, Israel is split into a northern & southern part. Northern part (Israel) is destroyed by the Assyrians. Later, the southern part is conquered by the Babylonians & its people taken into captivity (586 b.c.). This is when they shifted towards viewing Jehovah as the one true god of everyone, rather than just the god of the Jews. Fortunately, the Persians conquered Babylon later in the century and the Jews could return to Jerusalem.
Also around this time, the Jews start to spread out (the 'diaspora').
God will someday send a Messiah (means 'anointed one') to restore Israel and rule over
humanity.
2. Christianity
Demographic: ~1.7 billion followers, spread around the world.
Origin: 1st century A.D., Roman empire. Originally a sect of Judaism.
Allegedly from Jesus, though some non-Christians have questioned his existence, since he is not mentioned in non-Christian literature until the end of the 1st century.
History:
Jesus born around 4 b.c.
Preached for perhaps 3 years. Had 12 disciples.
Gospels written late 1st century (starting 70 A.D.)
Central Beliefs:
Jesus is the Messiah, also called the son of God, also considered (after the Council of Nicea) to be God.
Afterlife: Heaven & Hell. This life as a qualifying exam.
Jesus' teachings:
Strain of pacifism. ('turn the other cheek'; Matthew 5:28) But also tells his followers to be armed (Luke 22:36). He came to bring not peace, but a sword (Matthew 10:34)
May have regarded himself as the Messiah; anyway, his followers did.
Jesus performed many miracles (healing people, casting out demons, making food, walking on water).
Jesus' end:
During Passover, he entered Jerusalem. Had the Last Supper with his apostles. Said the bread was his body & the wine was his blood. May have meant this metaphorically, though the Catholics treat it literally.
Betrayed by Judas. Tried by the Jewish court & then crucified. The Gospels blame the Jews, but the Roman procurator, Pilate, was in charge.
Rose from the dead 2 days later. Appeared & spoke to his disciples during the next 40 days. Then ascended into heaven.
The crucifixion is supposed to save humanity and enable us to have eternal life. Jesus took on the punishment for our sins; all people are tainted by 'original sin.'
Versions of Christianity:
Catholicism:
Jesus intended Peter to be the head of the church. "You are Peter [Greek petros] and on this rock [Greek petra] I will build my church ..." (Matthew 16:18). Peter is supposed to have traveled to Rome, there founding the Roman Catholic Church.
He passed on his authority to succeeding priests.
Infallibility applies to: (a) the church as a whole, when all the bishops agree in matters of religion & morals. (b) ecumenical councils w/ papal approval. (c) the Pope, when speaking ex cathedra.
Protestantism:
Originated in protests against corruption in the church. (mainly in 16th century) (Especially: sale of indulgences)
Rejects authority of Pope & Roman Catholic Church.
Emphasis on faith & grace, rather than good deeds.
Dozens of different sects, some more liberal than others. E.g.:
Fundamentalists hold the Bible to be infallible & read it literally.
Some others allow metaphorical readings.
3. Zoroastrianism
Demographic: Perhaps 200,000, mainly in India, Iran, Pakistan. (In India, called 'Parsis')
Origin: Persian prophet Zoroaster (Zarathustra), ca. 600 b.c.
Sacred Text: the Avesta
Doctrines:
World as battleground between good & evil.
Good god: Ahura Mazda, associated with 'Truth'. Creator of the world. He has six 'emanations', which are like different aspects of him (something like the Trinity in Christian doctrine), and innumerable angels to assist him.
Evil god: Ahriman, who is evil by choice, having allied himself with 'Lie'. Assisted by a host of demons.
Human beings freely choose between good & evil. After death, souls are judged; good people will go to heaven, and bad people to hell. (Contrast: Christian doctrine of original sin & grace.)
Hell is only temporary (9000 years!), though, until the final battle when evil will be defeated, and the evil souls purified.
Fire is sacred in this religion, associated w/ Ahura Mazda. Temples keep eternally burning sacred flames.
Interesting practice: corpses are exposed to be devoured by vultures. Reason: Corpses are unclean, and this prevents earth, water, or fire from being contaminated. In modern times, they can bury the body in a stone coffin w/ lead lining to prevent contamination of the earth; or cremate the body in an electric oven.
Most important virtue: truthfulness.
History:
Was an early challenge to Christianity.
Lost followers during Alexander's conquest of Persia, and later after the Muslim conquest in the 7th century. Some fled to India to avoid forced conversion.
Influence:
May have been the source of Judeo-Christian-Islamic ideas about Satan, demons, judgement,
end of the world, & resurrection. These themes do not appear prior to the Jewish exile, but do
appear after they were freed by the Persians, who may have been Zoroastrians.
4. Manichaeism
Demographic: None left.
Origin: Persian prophet, Mani, around 240 a.d.
Doctrines:
Mani was the last in a series of prophets that included Zoroaster, the Buddha, and Jesus.
Good & evil used to exist in separate realms. Human beings are the result of an invasion of the good realm by evil and a subsequent struggle between the two.
Body as evil; soul as good part of humans.
Ultimate aim for us: free the soul from the body, which will result from a knowledge of the realm of good (imparted by the divine prophets), and a renunciation of carnal (body-associated) desires.
The people of highest spiritual attainment (the elect) can expect to ascend to the realm of Light and rejoin God after death. Others will be reborn. Eventually, everyone will be redeemed, the Earth will be destroyed, and good & evil will again be separate.
History:
Another major early challenge to Christianity. Augustine was initially a Manichaean before converting to Christianity.
Died out in the early middle ages.
5. Islam
Demographic: ~1 billion, mainly in parts of Asia, Middle East, Africa
Origin: The prophet Muhammad, 7th century a.d., in Mecca. Wrote down his revelations in the Koran.
Muslim doctrines:
Allah is omniscient, omnipotent, creator of the world.
The Koran is the infallible word of God.
Other sources of truth include: the Sunna (a collection of sayings & anecdotes of Mohammed), and the traditions of the community.
Mohammed is the last and greatest prophet in a series including Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and others. (Jesus was a prophet, not God.)
The ultimate purpose of humanity is to worship God & create a social order free from 'corruptions.' The prophets are sent to guide humanity in the correct moral behavior.
On the Day of Judgement, everyone will be judged according to their deeds, and rewarded with heaven or punished with hell.
5 central duties (the 5 pillars of Islam):
1. Profession of faith
2. They have to say 5 daily prayers.
3. Almsgiving (zakat) -- Muslims contribute some of their money for charitable purposes, including helping the poor, helping to spread Islam, and supporting jihad (holy wars). Originally collected as a tax by Muslim states.
4. They must fast during daytime throughout the month of Ramadan.
5. Every Muslim must make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his lifetime.
The goal of Muslims is "God's rule on Earth." Muhammad believed in the necessity of holy war and compulsory conversion to achieve this. This is why there are theocratic, Muslim states in the Middle East.
History:
Muhammad takes over Arabia in the 7th century. After his death, Muslim forces take over most of the Middle East, including Persia & Egypt, later taking over North Africa and Spain.
They use educated Persians to staff their bureaucracy. This is one way Hellenistic culture got a chance to influence Islamic culture.
Versions:
A dispute over the Caliphate upon Mohammed's death led to 2 major factions:
Sunni. More traditionalist. Accepted Mohammed's father-in-law as the new Caliph.
Shiite.
Held that Mohammed's son-in-law, Ali, should have been the immediate successor. Only the descendants of Ali (imams) had the right to rule.
Also hold that the Koran has hidden levels of meaning accessible only to the Imams, who are infallible.
Last imam disappeared in 880; they are awaiting his return.
EASTERN RELIGIONS:
6. Hinduism
Demographic: ~700 million, mainly in India
Origin: Mythology of India combined w/ Aryan invaders, ~2rd millennium b.c.
Texts: Vedas, Upanishads, & the Bhagavad-Gita. Vedas contain hymns ("mantras") & rituals. Upanishads (later origin) contain philosophical reflections & stories, some conflicts w/ the Vedas. The BG (later) is a mythical dialogue between the god Krishna and a human hero, Arjuna.
Beliefs:
Classical Hinduism: Extreme polytheism. Some important gods:
Indra: god of thunderbolts, clouds & rain, ruler of heaven
Vishnu: the preserver (or redeemer)
Shiva: god of destruction and reproduction
Brahma: the creator
Interesting story: Manu & the great flood. (Cf. also the great flood in the Gilgamesh Epic.)
Later Hindu doctrines, from Upanishads:
Brahman (not to be confused with Brahma) is the one true reality. We are all really expressions (parts?) of Brahman.
Brahman is an impersonal, infinite, eternal, and incomprehensible entity.
The physical world is an illusion.
Ultimate aim: To escape from this world by becoming aware of the illusion.
Social practices:
The caste system: 4 main castes:
(1) A religious caste (Brahmins), (2) warriors, (3) traders, (4) workers.
Job of the 4th class is to serve the other 3 without envy.
Women should be in the control of men: i.e., father, husband, then sons.
Cows are sacred. Killing a cow is one of the worst evils.
Later (after 700 a.d.) over 3000 more castes develop.
Reincarnation:
Those who fulfil their prescribed role can be reborn into a higher caste. Those who do not will go down, possibly even to animals or plants.
What is 'karma'? Collection of good & bad deeds you have done. Also: force that binds us to the cycle of life, death, & rebirth. (Literally, "act".)
What is 'nirvana'? The escape from the life cycle.
Universe passes through cycles; at the end of a cycle, the universe dissolves. After a rest, the universe is recreated and the souls take up new bodies.
The 'day' of Brahman is 4.3 billion years long (kalpa)
The 'night' of Brahman is equally long & is a period of dissolution (pralaya)
Brahmans themselves live for only 100 of their years (311 trillion human years)
7. Buddhism
Demographic: ~300 million, in various Asian countries.
Origin: Siddharta Gautama (a.k.a. the Buddha ('enlightened one')), 6th century b.c.
History:
Siddharta born a prince. Father protects him from seeing suffering of the world.
In adulthood, he seeks to understand causes of suffering. Tries philosophy, asceticism.
Finally achieves enlightenment under the bodhi tree. Insight: The cause of karma is desire.
Buddhists sent out missionaries in Asia. Spread the religion, while it died out in India.
Teachings:
Salvation was available to all castes. Even allowed women in his group.
4 noble truths:
1) The truth of suffering.
2) The truth of the cause of suffering.
3) The truth of the ending of suffering.
4) The truth of the noble path to the ending of desire.
Rejected traditional worship of gods.
Variants:
Theravada Buddhism: "the tradition of the elders". Closer to Buddha's original teachings. Seek salvation individually; each individual aspires to be a monk. Smaller branch (probably because less like traditional religions).
Mahayana Buddhism: "the greater vehicle". More of a missionary religion. Added:
1. The Buddha had secret teachings, fit only for his disciples.
2. The Buddha was a benevolent divine being, not just a person.
3. There are other Buddhas. These many Buddhas are worshiped in temples. Enables Mahayana Buddhism to appropriate gods from other religions.
Zen Buddhism ("zen" = meditation). Enlightenment through sudden intuitive insight.
Rejects external trappings of religion. Enlightenment is an individual affair.
Rejects reason. Seeks to confuse reason through koans (case studies: little riddles or stories). Example: "What is the sound of one hand clapping?"
There are many other sects too.
8. Taoism
Demographic: Unknown number in China.
Origin: Chinese philosopher "Lao Tzu" (means "old master"), though some doubt his existence. Possibly 500 b.c.
Text: Tao Te Ching ("The Way and its Power").
Teachings:
Taoism is not exclusive of other religions.
The world is governed by an indefinable force called "the Tao" ("the way").
The Tao is irresistible. The Tao will wipe away all human achievements.
Life is the ultimate value.
Live simply. Eschew fame, wealth, power, and education. Eschew pride, pomp.
Advocates pacifism, inaction.
Minimal government:
"Let go of fixed plans and concepts, and the world will govern itself. The more prohibitions you have, the less virtuous people will be. The more weapons you have, the less secure people will be. The more subsidies you have, the less self-reliant people will be. Therefore the Master says: I let go of the law, and people become honest. I let go of economics, and people become prosperous. I let go of religion, and people become serene. I let go of all desire for the common good, and the good becomes common as grass." (Tao Te Ching, 57)
Yin and Yang: Actually general concepts from ancient
Chinese philosophy, not specific to Taoism. 2
fundamental forces in nature. These forces should be in
harmony. Disharmony leads to rebellion, floods, disease.
Yin: associated w/ dark, cold, feminine, damp, the Earth, the moon, shadows.
Yang: light, warmth, masculine, dry, the sun.
Most things are combinations of yin & yang.
Note that these are not moral concepts. Not good or bad.
Later developments:
After a few centuries, it started to become more of a religion.
Taoists sought means of extending life.
Alchemists offered sacrifices to the god of the stove.
Started sacrificing to other gods. Borrowed from Mahayana Buddhism rituals, many gods,
concept of salvation. Adopted monasteries by 6th century a.d.
9. Confucianism
Origin: Teachings of Confucius (actually Kung Fu-Tze, "Kung the master"), 6th century b.c. May have met Lao Tzu.
Text: Most important is the Analects, collected after his death.
Life:
Confucius born to an aristocratic family that had lost its wealth & power.
Became a respected teacher.
Became prime minister of a Chinese province. Allegedly, it was an ideal government, but his enemies conspired against him & forced him out.
Spent some years wandering with his students, then became advisor to a duke.
Died at 72. According to legend, one of his disciples built a hut beside the grave & mourned him for 3 years.
Philosophy spread by his disciples after his death.
Teachings:
Believed in the gods, but did not emphasize them. More interested in political and moral philosophy.
Supported paternalistic, benevolent feudalism.
People have proper roles in each of their relationships in society, e.g.: father-son, elder-junior, ruler-subject, husband-wife. In each case, the first must be kind to the second, while the second must be respectful and obedient.
Main virtue: benevolence (jen). Do not do to others what you would not want others to do to you.
Believed humans had an innate capacity for good. (Contrast w/ Christianity)
Followers:
Mencius:
Asserted the innate goodness of human nature.
Some humans are corrupted by bad environment.
Need wise kings to provide environment producing virtue.
Opposed war. Except people have a right to rebel against tyrants.
Hsun-Tzu:
Thought people were basically bad.
We need laws to restrain people's pursuit of desires. Otherwise, we have conflict.
Later developments:
First few centuries a.d.: temples to Confucius arise. Some even regard him as a god, though most see him only as a revered ancestor.
Largely displaced by Buddhism by the 20th century.
1949: Chinese communist revolution. Communists hostile to religion, esp. during the 'cultural revolution' (1960's). Temples around the country are closed down, defiled.