Theory of the Electrons, Ground State

To prove the case of static motion of nucleons subverts the existing theory on the structure of the electrons. The current ground chart shows a common internal electron structure in all elements. Atomic radius of very large nuclei is not however greater than much lighter nuclei. With any ion there is a considerable radius change relative to the neutral atom, yet platinum (Z=78) and aluminum (Z=13) have virtually the same radius. There is no justification for the theory that in a ground state and non-ionized state, the internal electron shells are identical and build up in the pattern described. It is more likely that a common number of electrons behave the same and produce the similar spectra of like-ions. It is falsely interpreted that as one removes external layers, the identical internal layers are revealed. An actual application of the current electronic theory to the most important aspect of the electrons, which is the chemical interactions, does not exist. Some of the forbidden lines of hydrogen exceed the energy that the electron should be able to possess without ionization. Existing theory cannot account for this and this fact is ignored. The Schrodinger theory of the electron cloud subverts the principle that spectral emissions are the result of radius change and potential energy conversion. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle, allows contemporary theory to sidestep the issue of the actual mechanics of complexes of electrons. The Pauli principle electronic model needs the uncertainty principle because of its own inherent shortcomings, just as it needs the specifications of the four quantum numbers attributed to the identical electrons, which nature has no means to manifest, to justify the failure of the principle of filled shells which occurs above calcium. This failure is a failure of the theory’s initial principle, which is that the electrons will bind into their lowest energy state in the ground state.

The nucleus contains virtually all of the mass of the atom and does not become disassociated with its electrons in simple elastic collisions. Therefore it must be considered that the nucleus is maintained in its center position of the electron shell by repulsive forces.
X-ray silhouettes show that atomic binding occurs on the 'surface of a sphere' at a relatively great distance from the nucleus and the atomic radii can be determined. From this comes the term 'electron shell'.
In determining the Rydberg constant, calculations of the reduced mass relationship, (effective mass), of the nucleus and electron,  shows the electron to be in circular motion around the nucleus.

If the initial Pauli principle is followed, (that electrons will be drawn to the nucleus into their lowest energy relationship, releasing potential energy) all electrons will coalesce at the same orbital radius relegated by the repulsive force. Because of the circular motion of the electrons, it can be theorized that they must exist at this level in multiples of four only, and that this main electron shell will create an internal shell and an external shell each of which can be subdivided, but must have only one or two electrons in these subdivided shells which can not have a single electron shell inside of a double electron shell. If the electrical pressure is sufficient, an internal four electron shell can be maintained without the electrons dividing (see table). The effects of different nuclei affect the number of electrons in the internal shells. This structure precisely indicates the periods. This structure accounts for the variation in atomic radii through the period and the generally common atomic radii. The stable metals are indicated clearly by their external electron structures. This structure of the electron shells in the atomic ground states was developed principally by theoretical analyses of an atoms ability to achieve the ground state which is electrically neutral.

Nuclei composed of static structures of protons will have variation in distribution of mass and electrical units (protons). This variation will have important effects upon the spin of the nuclei and upon the relevance of the electrical forces and conditions under which the nucleus exists. The inertia to spin, external affect upon the spin, and the nature of the electromagnetic fields which the spin produces, are all direct products of the mass and electrical distribution. Contemporary electronic theory does not and can not account for this very important energy variation among nuclei in its electronic formulae.

By coincidence of the geometric and structural needs of filling the area that the nucleus occupies, common distribution of mass occurs in the nuclei of elements considered congeners of the periodic chart and in the nuclei of each isotope of an element. The effect of this is the common effect upon the radius at which the electron shells obtain their equilibrium. This forces fewer or more electrons to the exterior or interior of the main electron shell. Elements considered metals have a common distribution of mass in their nuclei. Thus the period and the absence of the period in the transition metals is originally a direct product of this distribution of mass in the nuclei which directly affects the nature of the electron shells which the nucleus assumes.

Identification of the stable, static structural organizations of protons and neutrons for the isotopes of the elements can be done by the most simple geometric and structural experiment.

To Fundamental Proof of Static Nuclear Structure

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Kent Deatherage April 13, 1997

Theory of the Electrons, Hydrogen

In Bohr’s electronic model the quantisation rule was never fundamentally supported except in practice. The quantisation rule which indicates the four quantum numbers of present theory is also not fundamentally supported. Quantification of the energy of spectra can be achieved by viewing the electron complexes as oscillators which emit energy upon attainment of new energy levels. Energy must exist in integrals of Planck’s constant. The discreet intervals of the hyper-multiplets supports this and continuous spectra is adjacent energy levels of hv. The quantisation of emission spectra occurs because of harmonics associated with the orbital radius of the electron and the velocity of light, which is the speed of vibration in a magnetic field, and because the surface area of the sphere of the oscillator must be equally divided. Dividing the surface area of a perfect sphere is achieved by one deformity or degree of eccentricity. Further equal division is achieved by two deformities diametrically opposed. Four deformities in a tetrahedral placement is the next equal division. This represents the vibrations around the circumference of the electron radius. The ground state of hydrogen is the single deformity. The primary excitation level is two deformities. The secondary excitation level is four. Any further division recreates the sphere, which can be called zero pulse, and this state requires the highest energy level to achieve and is the full flexation of the oscillator. A transition from secondary excitation to zero pulse releases the full content of stored energy and creates the energy line of the Lyman series, wavelength 938. The lowest energy line of the Lyman series, 1216, comes from the release of energy that occurs in the transition from primary excitation to the ground state. The next line, 1026, comes from the transition from secondary excitation to the ground state. This line is ½ the maximum energy of the oscillator. The next two lines of the Lyman series are the result of transitions from the ground state to zero pulse and from primary excitation to zero pulse. Although to add energy sufficient to achieve the transition from secondary excitation to zero-pulse can not be maintained as an energy state, the harmonics of further divisions create emission and absorption levels up to the continuum at the ionization energy level.

These energy levels represent the absorption spectra as these are the energy levels that can be reached from lower states. The hydrogen electron can absorb the energy of these frequencies because they are a pure harmonic of the ground state. With this theory of the energy states, the simple de'Broglie wave mechanics are applicable. In contemporary theory they fail to specify the orbital radii of the energy states as borrowed from Bohr. The wave state of a sphere is that waves travel a circuit and self-conflict. The energy of an oscillating sphere will radiate (flexation of an oscillator) until a non-self conflicting circular pulse is achieved. This circular pulse will not be affected by an increment of energy below its energy level and not a pure harmonic of its energy below the ionization potential. This circular pulse has the harmonics of the classical oscillator ( 2piv ) although its energy will always be in increments of its mean energy (Planck's constant). The surface area of a sphere (4pi) is a strict multiple. (Linear energy x 4pi).. (squared) in increments of h = energy or number of possible wave states. By the relation E=mc2, when the oscillator acquiesces energy, this energy will have a mass constant. The oscillator increases its energy at a constant radius by increasing it's consistency and the complexity of its vibrational state. Vibrational speed is constant, ( c ).The harmonics of this increasing consistency in relation to the harmonics of the circular pulse result in the intervals of quantisation.

Therefore two states of circular pulsation above the ground state, that do not radiate upon attainment, exist for the electromagnetic electron oscillator of hydrogen,( H is perpendicular to E, nuclear electric field, at radius of electron). Three states exist that do not radiate. One being the ground state, (which does not radiate) the other two are extremely temporal. All excess energy is radiated upon attainment of the ground state. (Any other electromagnetic field radiates continually). The energy of these states is very near the ionization potential. Ionization energy and ground state energy of hydrogen = 13.59 electron volts. 1st harmonic of energy that can be absorbed = 13.59/2 + 13.59/4. 2nd harmonic = 13.59/2 +13.59/4 + 13.59/8__ + 13.59/64. 3rd harmonic = 13.59/2 + 13.59/4 + 13.59/8 + 13.59/16. The first two of these harmonics represent the primary and secondary excitation. The last fraction of energy in the secondary excitation level is because of the increase in surface area of the circular tetrahedral pulse. This fraction remains in the more complex wave states. The third harmonic does not evolve from the secondary excitation energy level. It is the first energy level above the secondary excitation that radiates its energy immediately upon attainment and returns the atom to ground state. These harmonics extend to the continuum or the series limit defined by the integrals of h. The first Balmer line corresponds to 13.59/8 + 13.59/64 (without the 1/2 + 1/4). The divisions from this that approach the energy of 1/4 of the ground wave, are the Balmer series. (1/8, 3/16, 7/32, etc.) At radius two, the inverse square of the energy is 1/4.

A more refined analyses would include the energy of splitting, ( the hydrogen lines are doublets). The energy of splitting  is affected  by many factors such as minute amounts of energy in vibrations traveling perpendicular to the circular rotation and the reduced mass relationship of the electrons and nucleus. The nucleus becomes extremely more massive at greater Z. Its energy of inertia becomes relevant. The energy variations caused by deviation from spherical symmetry of nuclear structures is basic in any analyses of spectra. In complexes of electrons concurrent direction of rotation is affected by external magnetic field, anomalous Zeeman effect. Multiplicities are caused by slight variations in the energy level from which re-excitation occurs.
 
 

Energy Levels of the Hydrogen Atom

0) .....1... Ground State, 13.59 Electron Volts

1) .....2...................... 1/2 + 1/4 = 10.1925 (fractions of 13.59)

2) .....4...................... 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8__ + 1/64 = 12.104

3) ...8(1/2, 1/4)......... 1/2 + !/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 = 12.74

4) ...8(1/2,1/4,1/8).... 1/2 + 1/4 +1/8 +1/16 __ + 1/64 + 1/128 = 13.059

5) ......8.....................1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + 1/32__ + 1/256 = 13.218

6) ......16....................1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + 1/32__ + 1/128__ + 1/512 = 13.298

7) ......32...................1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + 1/32 + 1/64 = 13.378

8) ......64...................1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + 1/32 + 1/64__ + 1/256 = 13.431

9).......128..................1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + 1/32 + 1/64__ + 1/256 + 1/512 =13.457

(to continuum).... For Balmer series subtract (1/2 + 1/4)
 
 

Balmer terms..(-1/2,1/4)../...Addition of fractions of 13.59.../........Lyman Terms
 

 a) 6562.79 A=.. 1.89 eV.../.....1.91eV....12.104......./.....12.086 eV.... = 1025.83 A.(b.

b) 4861.33 A=.. 2.55 eV.../...2.548 eV......12.74....../.......12.748 eV.... = 972.54 A..(c

c) 4340.47 A=... 2.86 eV.../....2.866........13.059....../......13.054 eV.... = 949.76 A..(d

d) 4101.74 A= ..3.023 eV.../...3.026........13.218...../......13.22 eV....... = 937.82 A..(e

e) 3970.07 A=..3.123 eV..../....3.105.........13.298

f) 3889.05 A=... 3.188 eV..../.....3.185.......13.378

g) 3835.39 A=.. 3.232 eV...../......3.238..........13.431

h) 3797.9 A =.... 3.264 eV..../......3.2648........13.457

Wavelengths and eV of hydrogen terms from Groitrian energy level diagram
Reciprocal of wavelength x 12398 = eV

The electron absorbs energy (frequencies below hv/kT >> 1) which does not affect the existent wave state until the energy quotient is sufficient to support the frequencies of the relevant harmonics. A photon that penetrates the electron must be of the relevant harmonics and quickly increases energy content, (which is very important in the statistical system). Energy that affects the vibrational states, must be acquiesced in the harmonics of these wave states. At attainment of new vibrational states, which must be a transition from one of these stored energy states, conflicting vibrations release energy not stored into the non-conflicting pulsation (vibration) of the new state, if one is achieved, which must be of the harmonics of the initial wave (ground state) for frequencies hv/kT becomes greater than 1. Otherwise acquiesced energy (below hv/kT becomes greater than one) is radiated immediately as with the classical oscillator and the hydrogen electron will, as a blackbody, radiate equivalent to its radiative environment, the frequency of highest intensity proportional to the sum of the energy of all vibrations or absolute temperature. The highest frequency is also proportional to the sum of the energy of all vibrations as described in the scale of electron volts to spectral emissions. (To maintain the production of higher frequencies, saturation of all lower frequencies must be maintained.) Intensity is a product of the statistical nature of any emissions system.

The energy of spectral lines is dependent on the energy of the state from which the transition occurs as well as the amount of energy retained by the new state. Transitions require a specific level of energy acquisition to occur. In this electronic model, the emission lines of a series occur at the same orbital radius of the electron. The pure harmonics of multiples of two stipulate the radii. The high energy forbidden lines of hydrogen therefore come from highly excited jumps to radius ½. The surface area diminishes as an inverse square. The energy delivered to a photon increases proportionally.

The Balmer series occur at radius twice that of the Lyman series. The harmonics of the ground state pulsation are transposed to twice the radius.  The Balmer series approach the series limit which matches the series limit for the Lyman at the ionization potential. This point is exactly 1/4 the energy of the ionization potential. The intensity of the Balmer lines matches it's corresponding Lynman line. In astronomical observations the Balmer series appear as absorption lines. The Balmer series is  the only sub-series in atomic spectra that appears in absorption. The reason for this is not their specific energy, but that their energy is a perfect product of 2piv of the hydrogen ground state.

With a complex of electrons, all the electrons compose the oscillator, although with some atoms in initial excitation, only the exterior electrons compose the oscillator.(Lithium is a good example). In full excitation the electron shells are entirely disrupted and all the electrons are integrated into a common shell. The electrons divide to re-achieve the ground state. Odd and even number of electrons therefore display particular characteristics of spectra in multiplicities. In very heavy nuclei, such as mercury, full excitation does not entirely combine the electron shells.

In helium, the two electrons are combined in production of the principle series. Initially the dual electrons form a double pulse, omitting the normal single pulse of the ground state. In parhelium, energy acquiesced by the nuclear spin combines these two electrons into a common oscillator with the three states of non-radiation, which produces the much higher energy metastable state. This deeper energy level resembles that of the forbidden lines of hydrogen in that it occurs at closer radius, but it is a full principle series with the three acquiesced energy states. The diffuse spectra occur when electrons of complexes are separated in excited states. Energy is acquiesced in the interior where the photon originates. The photon is split and absorbed and re-emitted by the external shell. Sharp spectra occur with the combined electrons at greater radius.

A close examination of the nuclear structures of the alkaline earth metals reveals a consistent distribution of mass that would also produce ortho and para spectra, though not nearly as non-intercombining or metastable as that of helium, which is caused by distinctly different nuclei of the same weight.

The doublet nature of the alkali metals and boron group, and the general splitting at the beginning of the period is a result of the polarization of the nuclear electric fields of these elements. There are slightly different energy levels at the ground state or after oscillation from which the atom begins excitation. This is the cause of multiplicities. The effect of a magnetic or electric field upon the division of shells is the cause for the Zeeman and Stark effects.

Complexes of electrons radiate upon attainment of primary and secondary excitation states although energy is retained in the two states of excitation which is then relevant to the next transition (unlike the other energy levels in which acquiesced energy is radiated immediately returning the atom to the ground state). The alkali metals have the non-radiative states of atainment of primary and secondary excitation due to the deformity of their nuclei. This is why their spectra resembles that of hydrogen, not that their external electron is like the single electron of hydrogen.

The energy of emissions is directly related to the energy of the ionization potential. This is actually the energy of the initial wave state or ground state. In the ground state of electron complexes, each electron is bound equally by the energy of the ionization potential and, as in all other energy systems, a uniform distribution of binding energy is achieved. (This is evident in the radii of ions, particularly the varying bond lengths of the species of O2 ions. As number of electrons decreases, binding energy per electron increases resulting in closer and higher energy bonds. At points, chemistry must already work with this principle, though this is not consistent with the Pauli principles.) An equivalent amount of this energy (in frequency, which is also indicative of total energy) must exist and be applied to the system in order for it to be absorbed and result in the removal of an electron. At ionization, the energy of the system is exactly double the ionization potential. In emissions, the atom releases energy to return to the ground state, although the emissions are caused by a flexation of the oscillator which only occurs upon achieving a new energy level. Full flexation of the oscillator releases all excess energy and the atom goes through a transitory state to re-attain the ground state, although re-excitation can occur instead as happens in laser excitation. The continuous spectra are caused by the electron itself in near disassociation with the atom. A comprehensive system of attributing each spectral line to an electronic oscillator, which was Planck’s initial hypothesis, can be derived which includes all splitting and hyperfine structure.

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A) Chemical binding (which is static) and the static bonding of the solid state must occur on the surface of an electron shell composed of a single electron.

B) With covalent bonds, at least one electron from one of the constituents forms a molecular shell around the entire complex.

C) Electrons are exchanged very rapidly between shells and between reacting atoms.(e.g. potassium relinquishes an electron in normal binding that comes from the interior shell). Carbon binds on a single electron shell its electron structure becomes 4-1. Methane is a carbon atom with four hydrogen atoms spaced evenly on its surface. One electron forms a molecular shell.

A carbon-carbon single bond is (4-1) (1-4-1)
Acarbon-carbon double bond is (4-1) (4-1), one electron rotates bond, one electron is donated to a molecular shell. The bonding to the carbon atoms occurs in a common plane.
A carbon-carbon triple bond is (1-2-1) (1-2-1). Electrons rotate bonds or are donated to molecular shell. The binding points to the carbon atoms are in line.
Alkane hydrocarbons have a surplus of hydrogen atoms. The effect of the added electrical power of these hydrogen atoms is to support multi-electron molecular shells. These electrons come from the carbon-carbon bonds of the complex. The multi-electron molecular shell, gives the alkanes their properties of viscosity and their inabilty to react into chemical combinations.

D) The enthalpy of reactions can be traced by considering that electron mass defect is the producer of enthalpy changes. In the electron shells in the ground state, mass defect occurs in shells composed of two or four electrons. A single electron in a neutral external shell does not suffer this defect. The effect of this can be seen in the high ionization potential of helium and the inert elements. Also elemental nitrogen, with its electron structure of 1-4-2,forms a diatom which has a two electron molecular shell that is also inert.

E) Ionic bonding occurs with the exchange of electrons and formation of a regularly spaced lattice and without the unit molecular shell.

F) The spin of nuclei becomes polarized in normal chemical bonding due to ordered static pressure amongst the repulsive forces. This change in spin results in change of relevant electronegativity of the nucleus. A precessional spin,(with both important axis of spin involved), has highest electronegativity. A polarized spin has lower electronegativity than that of a fully precessional spin(principally around a single axis, although a precession around this axis may be present). An erratic spin (the alkalis) has lowest electronegativity. The effect of the change in electronegativity upon the chemical enthalpy of oxygen and nitrogen is extremely evident. That the nuclei of metals are not affected to such an extent with the binding of their electrons is important in the nature of metallic binding.

The specific binding points of atoms are caused by this polarization of spin. This can readily be seen in the water molecule and binding points of carbon. Carbon dioxide is a linear molecule of two oxygen atoms at opposite ends of an carbon atom. The benzene ring forms as the carbon atoms are attempting to attach end to end. The hydrogen atom, in having no distinguishing features at the surface of its nucleus, can have no such specified regions of binding as the limited-ligancy carbon atom has. The carbon atom although normally tetra-valent does exist in some compounds with a five bond ligancy.(aluminum tri-methyl)

G) Metals are defined by near round nuclear structures that are slightly flattened into disk. These structures spin according to their own mass and electrical distribution. These structure do not effect the electrons shells in the ground state as other nuclear shapes do which results in the stable external electron 2-1 shell. Metallic bonding occurs with the atoms relinquishing electrons but not with molecular shell. Electrons rotate bonds and forms continuous shells through the structure.

E) Crystals of the Elements Crystals of like atoms (crystals of the elements), must have a ratio of atoms in which at least one atom relinquishes an electron. These basic ratios 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 1:4 etc. are the initial stacking sequence that dictates the structural organization of the crystal throughout. These ratios are not the ligancy. Even in atoms with no limited ligancy, these ratios in stacking and in creating strands, define all crystal structures. e.g., A 1:3 ratio creates a tetrahedron. When these are stacked or packed into strands that are then interlaced mono-clinic or tri-clinic crystals result. Ratio of 1:2 creates many crystal types including the hexagonal systems. Ratio of 1-4 creates orthorhombic crystals.

The diamond crystal is a ratio of 2:1 forming strands in which this triad alternates 90 degrees. These two of the ratio are at 109 degree angles to the single. These strands form layers of a matrix. In the octahedral crystal the strands run from point to point and all bonds are equidistant.At the surface of this matrix three strands interlaced begin the pyramidial stepping that causes the triangular appeareance of the tetrahedron which is seen in electron microscope. The internal elasticity of this structure is a reason for diamond's hardness and low specific heat.

In the diamond the carbon atoms are in a ratio of 1:2. Two atoms 4-1, one atom 1-4-2-1. A non-conductor of electricity
As graphite the carbon atoms are in a ratio of 1:2. Two atoms 4-1, one atom 1-4-1. Two of these groups form a hexagonal ring which therefore has four electrons rotating bonds making graphite a good conductor of electricity.

Silicon forms the diamond crystal in a ratio of 1:2. Two atoms 1-12-1, one atom 12-1. The excluded electron forms a continous shell around the strand. Silicon is therefore translucent and a semi-conductor.

Elementary sulfur bonds in ratios of 1:3. Two of these groups form the S-8 molecule which is a unit molecule at lower temperatures as a liquid. These molecules form an orthorhombic crystal. In sulfur's other allotrope this ratio of 1:3 forms the mono-clinic crystal.

F)Conductivity In some crystals, some of the atoms absorb electrons from neighboring atoms. No electrons exist within the structure. These are non-conductors of electricity. In some crystals few electrons are within the structure. These are semi-conductors. In metals and some other atoms, many electrons are bound within the crystal structure. These are conductors of electricity.

G) Water Molecule In the water molecule, the two hydrogen atoms penetrate the oxygen atom. Recent studies show the water molecule to be essentially spherical and very nearly the same size as the neutral oxygen atom. The hydroxl ion is also very nearly the same size as the first anion of oxygen. (The oxygen electron structure is, 1-2-4-1) Due to the instability of the oxygen electron structure, the water molecule has two electrons outside the hydrogen atoms. The hydrogen atoms bind on the oxygen structure of 1-4-1 leaving two electrons in its molecular shell. The unique properties of water stem from this including its expansion as a solid and its high enthalpy of phase change which is caused by a separation of this two electron shell. As a liquid the two electrons are together. Energy to separate these electrons must be absorbed at change to a solid. Energy is released from the other bonds that are formed. In transition to a gas, energy to separate these electrons must be absorbed and the energy to separate from the bonds to other atoms must be absorbed. Water has ligancy 3 as a liquid, ligancy 4 as a solid. These bonding points are isolated in hemispheres on the atom, forming irregular strands as a liquid, and a tetrahedral binding points as a solid. The water crystal is not the same as the diamond crystal. As water nears the freezing points these strands become more ordered resulting in the decrease in density below 4 degrees above freezing.

Enthalpy of transition from liquid to gas =40.6 kilo joules per mole
Enthalpy of transition from solid to liquid  = 6 kJ per mole
Enthalpy of sublimation solid to gas = 51 kJ per mole

If the water molecule has a two electron shell in the liquid state with three bonds to external molecules, to separate all these bonds is separating  5 bonds in the transition to a gas.
absorbing 40.6 kJ per mole ( the molar value is used for bond energy, actual energy per bond is obtained by dividing by number of molecules in a mole)
40.6 divided by 5 = 8.1 kJ per bond in the liquid state
to separate the two electron bond at freezing, 16.2 kJ (8.1 kJ per bond) must be absorbed
likewise four bonds of the solid state are formed on the remaining external electron, three of these are a transition from the liquid bond to a solid bond
if in the solid state each bond is 11.6 kJ, four bonds of 11.6 kJ equals 46.4 kJ,
since three bonds are already present of 8.1 kJ....24.3 kJ
this means 22.1 kJ released at formation of solid bonds, (one bond of 11.6, plus the increase in three bonds of 8.1 to 11.6,  3.5 x 3 = 10.5 kJ,  11.6 + 10.5 =22.1 kJ)
with 16.2 kJ absorbed to separate the two electron shell, 22.1 kJ released in formation of the solid bonds
a net of 6 kJ of heat is released at transition to a liquid, enthalpy
The value of four bonds of the solid state = 46.4 kJ, is very close to the combined enthalpy of liquefaction and vaporization 40.6 + 6 = 46.6.
However the enthalpy of sublimation is 51 kJ.
This extra 4.5 kJ is due to energy absorbed in various vibrations within the molecule, the kinetic energy absorbed, and the increase in density of the electromagnetic fields as the oxygen-hydrogen complex attains a spin with two axis fully involved. This is also the cause for the very high specific heat of water.
Between 0 degrees C. and 100 degrees C, water with the specific heat of 75.4 J per degree per mole, absorbs 7.54 kJ,
This gives a total of 54.14 kJ from a liquid to vaporization at boiling point at normal pressure. Since the main inertia of vibration is the vibration of the core of the molecule which contains most all of the mass, this extra 3.1 kJ above the sublimation enthalpy of 51 kJ is due to the kinetic energy of vibrations due to the binding on the two electron shell and vibrations of the strands of the liquid state although this energy is not absorbed as enthalpy of disassociation and is lost as the vapor cools.

The water molecule has a strong di-pole moment, therefore an unusually high bonding energy as a liquid with this limited ligancy. It's almost unique ability to dissolve salts is a result of this.
This di-pole moment is due to the polarization of spin within the molecule. The rotation of the electron shells is integrated with the spin of the interior complexes (oxygen nucleus and oxygen hydrogen complex) The hydrogen atoms are attached to the oxygen atom and to each other. They remain in a common hemisphere of the oxygen atom's polarized spin. In the liquid state the external two electrons rotate concurrent with the hemispheres of the internal complex. this divides the molecule into halves with very different energy levels since the hydrogen atoms are in one hemisphere of this spin.
As a solid the interior polarization divides the molecule and the water molecule binds like the carbon atom with four binding points equally spaced from each other on the surface of its sphere.
As a gas the interior oxygen-hydrogen complex spins with two axis of spin fully involved. This draws one electron from the two electron shell much closer and the two electrons remain separated until condensation.
 

H. Hydroxyl Ion (OH- radical)
The water molecule and its ion, the OH- radical, is very important in the chemistry of minerals, the chemistry of acids and biochemistry. The OH- radical is a water molecule which loses one of it's hydrogen atoms yet retains the electron from this hydrogen. It therefore has the surplus of one electron to its internal number of protons and is a negative ion and distributes a hydrogen atom without an electron. To derive a theoretical analyses of this very important key to much of chemistry, the two electron molecular shell of the water molecule must be understood.

The two electrons in a common shell become deficient in their mass due to their mutual binding. This equivalence of binding energy is distributed throughout the complex's electrons raising the energy required to remove an electron or to disassociate the molecule from its binding to other molecules. The extremely high enthalpy of the phase transitions of water is indicative of this. Therefore the water molecule loses one of its hydrogen atoms but does not relinquish an electron in becoming the hydroxl ion. This surplus electron is therefore available to involvement with the molecular binding of the OH- radical.

The hydrogen atom is not considered an extremely electronegative atom. However it can gain one electron which is double its normal content of electrons. In actuality it is extremely electronegative. It can also form a diatomic electron shell with one electron between two protons as H2+, and as H2 exist in two forms in ration 1:3. One with the single electron diatomic shell and the other electron outside this as a molecular shell, and the other H2 molecule  (more common by 3:1) with two electron diatomic shell. The high electronegativity of  hydrogen is very important in the complexes with which it is involved, particularly the water molecule and the alkane hydro-carbons, and the phenomenon of hydrogen binding. The property of acidity is due to the effect hydrogen atoms have upon the balance of binding energies of complexes (with or without their electron), the very important oxygen acids based upon the OH- radical.

I. Ferromagnetism
Iron nuclei have their mass distributed in the three structural axis most uniformly though not perfectly. This means that the spin polarization is more easily modified, the inertia to spin in its given direction is less. Thus it has the powerful property of Ferromagnetism. The best permanent magnets are made with specific combination of the other ferromagnetics in which the spin polarization is not as easily modified. Therefore these alloys retain their magnetism the best. Iron can readily be magnetized and de-magnetized.

The nuclei retain the spin which has both axis completely involved. The synchronization of spin of neighboring nuclei is the synchronization of the axis of spin which has the least mass of the two important axis of spin. With this synchronization of spin, an excess of energy is acquiesced in the substance due to added levels of certain frequencies of energy. This energy is converted into electrical field. This excess electrical energy escapes the interior of the substance and is channeled to a specific point at the surface of the substance that it escapes. This discharge is an oscillation with energy discharged and re-acquired, as the energy level fluctuates above and below the energy level specified by the energy of the nuclear electrical fields which does not fluctuate. Energy is reacquired into the substance at a different point than the discharge which is diametrically opposed. The direction of polarization of the nuclear spin is different in the neighboring nuclei at the regions of the substance of discharge and acquisition. This added electric field and oscillation results in the appearance of the magnetic field.
 
 

KentDeatherage.1997- 2003.

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