Evolution

Classification
Define species.
Describe the value of classifying organisms.
This refers to natural classification. Include how the organization of data assists in identifying organisms, shows evolutionary links and enables prediction of characteristics shared by members of a group.
Outline the binomial system of nomenclature.
State that organisms are classified into the kingdoms Prokaryotae, Protoctista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
This system uses the five kingdom classification system of Margulis and Schwartz (based on Whittaker), which is found in most textbooks.
List the seven levels in the hierarchy of taxa--kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species--using an example from two different kingdoms for each level.
Apply and/or design a key for a group of up to eight organisms.
A dichotomous key should be used.
Evolution
Define evolution.
Evolution--the process of cumulative change in the heritable characteristics of a population.
State that populations tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support.
Explain that the consequence of the potential overproduction of offspring is a struggle for survival.
State that the members of a species show variation.
Explain how sexual reproduction promotes variation in a species.
Limit this to meiosis (see 3.2) and fertilization (see 5.7.4).
Explain how natural selection leads to the increased reproduction of individuals with favourable heritable variations.
The Darwin-Wallace theory is accepted by most as the origin of ideas about evolution by means of natural selection.
Discuss the theory that species evolve by natural selection.
Explain two examples of evolution in response to environmental change; one must be multiple antibiotic resistance in bacteria.
Origin of life on Earth
Outline the conditions of pre-biotic Earth, including high temperature, lightning, UV light penetration and a reducing atmosphere.
Outline the experiments of Miller and Urey into the origin of organic compounds.
Discuss the hypothesis that the first catalysts responsible for polymerization reactions were clay minerals and RNA.
Discuss the possible role of RNA as the first molecule capable of replicating.
Discuss a possible origin of membranes and prokaryotic cells.
Discuss the endosymbiotic theory for the origin of eukaryotes.
Origin of species
Outline Lamark's theory of evolution by the inheritance of acquired characteristics.
Discuss the mechanism of, and lack of evidence for, the inheritance of acquired characteristics.
Explain the Darwin-Wallace theory of evolution by natural selection.
Discuss other theories for the origin of species including special creation and panspermia.
Panspermia is the theory concerned with the arrival of material from outer space. Special creation is mentioned by several religions; a study of all of them is not required.
Discuss the evidence for all these theories and the applicability of the scientific method for further investigation.
Evidence for evolution
Describe the evidence for evolution as shown by the geographical distribution of living organisms, including the distribution of placental, marsupial and monotreme mammals.
Outline how remains of past living organisms have been preserved.
Include petrified remains, prints and moulds, and preservations in amber, tar, peat and ice.
Outline the method for dating rocks and fossils using radioisotopes, with reference to 14C and 40K.
Knowledge of the degree of accuracy and the choice of isotope to use is expected. Details of the apparatus used are not required.
Define half-life.
Deduce the approximate age of materials based on a simple decay curve for a radioisotope.
Outline the palaeontological evidence for evolution using one example.
Explain the biochemical evidence provided by the universality of DNA and protein structures for the common ancestry of living organisms.
Explain how variations in specific molecules can indicate phylogeny.
Discuss how biochemical variations can be used as an evolutionary clock.
Explain the evidence for evolution provided by homologous anatomical structures, including vertebrate embryos and the pentadactyl limb.
Homologous anatomical structures are structures derived from the same part of a common ancestor.
Outline two modern examples of observed evolution. One example must be the changes to the size and shape of the beaks of Galapagos finches.
Other examples could include pesticide resistance, bird predation on moths and heavy metal tolerance in plants.
Human evolution
State the full classification of human beings from kingdom to sub-species.
Describe the major physical features, such as the adaptations for tree life, that define humans as primates.
Discuss the anatomical and biochemical evidence which suggests that humans are a bipedal and neotenous species of African ape that spread to colonize new areas.
Attention should be drawn to the main features only. Neoteny in this case is in relation to the delayed onset of puberty leading to the increased period of parental care.
Outline the trends illustrated by the fossils of Australopithecus including A. afarensis, A. africanus and A. robustus, and Homo including H. habilis, H. erectus, H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens.
Discuss the possible ecology of these species and the ecological changes that may have promoted their origin.
Discuss the incompleteness of the fossil record and the resulting uncertainties with respect to human evolution.
Knowledge of approximate dates and distribution for the named species is expected. Details of sub-species or particular groups (Cro-Magnon, Peking etc) are not required. Reasons for the incompleteness of the fossil record should be included.
Discuss the origin and consequences of bipedalism and increase in brain size.
Outline the difference between genetic and cultural evolution.
Neo-Darwinism
State the mutations are changes to genes or chromosomes due to chance, but with predictable frequencies.
Outline phenyletonuria (PKU) and cystic fibrosis as examples of genes mutation, and Klinefelter's syndrome as an example of chromosome mutation.
Explain that variation in a population results from the recombination of alleles during meiosis and fertilization.
State that adaptations (or micro-evolutionary steps) may occur as the result of an allele frequency increasing in a population's gene pool over a number of generations.
Describe how the evolution of one species into another species involves the accumulation of many advantageous alleles in the gene pool of a population over a period of time.
State that a species is a potentially interbreeding population having a common gene pool.
Discuss the definition of the term species.
Discuss the process of speciation in terms of migration, geographical or ecological isolation and adaptation, leading to reproductive or genetic isolation of gene pools.
Discuss ideas on the pace of evolution including gradualism and punctuated equilibrium.
Gradualism is the slow change from one form to another. Punctuated equilibrium, however, impleies long periods with no change and short periods of rapid evolution. Mention could be made of the effects of volcanic eruptions and meteor impact in affecting evolution on Earth.
The Hardy-Weinberg Principle
Describe an adaptation in term of the change in frequency of a gene's alleles.
Explain how the Hardy-Weinberg equation (p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1) is derived.
Calculate allele, genotype and phenotype frequencies for two alleles of a gene, using the Hardy-Weinberg equation.
State that the Hardy-Weinberg principle can also be used to calculate allele, genotype and phenotype frequencies for genes with two alleles.
The ability to calculate such frequencies is not expected.
State the Hardy-Weinberg principle and the conditions under which is applies.
For the principle to be followed, it must be assumed that a population is large, with random mating and a constant allele frequency over time. This implies no allele-specific mortality, no mutation, no emigration and no immigration.
Describe one example of transient polymorphism and sickle cell anemia as an example of balanced polymorphism.
An example of transient polymorphism is industrial melanism. Sickle cell anemia is an example of balanced polymorphism where heterozygotes (sickle cell trait) have an advantage in malarial regions because they are fitter than either homozygote.