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Rene
Descartes
The Passions of the Soul (London, 1650)
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THE PASSIONS OF THE SOUL
THE
FIRST PART OF PASSIONS IN GENERAL:
and occasionally of the universal nature of man.
The First Article
That what is passion in regard of the subject, is always action in some other respect.
There is nothing more clearly evinces the learning which we receive from the Ancients to be defective, than what they have written concerning the passions. For although it be a matter the understanding whereof has even been hunted after; and that it seems to be none of the hardest, because every one feeling them in himself, need not borrow foreign observations to discover their nature. Yet what the Ancients have taught concerning them, is so little, and for the most part so little credible that I cannot hope to draw nigh truth, but by keeping aloof off from those roads which they followed. Wherefore I shall here be forced to write in such a sort, as if I treated of a matter never before handled. And first of all I consider that all which is done, or happens anew, is by the philosophers called generally a passion in relation to the subject on whom it befalls, and an action in respect of that which causes it. So that although the agent and patient be things often differing, action and passion are one and the same thing, which has two several names, because of the two several subjects whereunto they may relate.
The 17th Article
What the functions of the soul are. .
Having thus considered all the functions belonging to the body only, it is easy to know there remains nothing in us which we ought to attribute to our soul, unless our thoughts, which are chiefly of two kinds, to wit, some actions of the soul, others, her passions. Those which I call her actions are all our wills because we experimentally find they come directly from our soul and seem to depend on nought but it. As on the contrary, one may generally call her passions all those sorts of apprehensions and understandings to be found within us because oftimes our soul does not make them such as they are to us, and she always receives things as they are represented to her by them.
The 19th Article
Of the apprehension.
Our apprehensions also are of two sorts: the soul is the cause of some, the body of the other. Those whereof the soul is the cause are the apprehensions of our wills and all the imaginations or other* thoughts thereon depending. For we cannot will anything but we must at the same time perceive that we do will it. And although in respect of our soul it be an action to will anything, it may be said also a passion in her to apprehend that she wills. Yet because this apprehension and this will are in effect but one, and the same thing, the denomination comes still from that which is most noble. Therefore it is not customary to call it a passion, but only an action
* The original reads "others" for "other."
The 26th Article
That the imaginations, which depend only on the accidental motion of the spirits, may be as real passions, as the apprehensions depending on the nerves.
It is here to be observed that all the same things which the soul perceives by intercourse with the nerves, may also be represented to it by the accidental course of the spirits. And [there is] no difference between them but this, that the impressions which come from the brain by the nerves, are usually more lively, and manifest than those the spirits excite there, which made me say in the one and twentieth Article, that these are only as the shadow, and representation of these. It is also to be noted, that it sometimes falls out, this picture is so like the thing it represents, that it is possible to be deceived concerning the apprehensions attributed to whose objects without us, or those referred to any parts of our body, but not to be served so concerning the passions, for as much as they are so near, and interior to our soul that it is impossible she should feel them, unless they were truly such as she does feel them. So oftentimes when one sleeps, and sometimes too being awake, a man fancies things so strongly that he thinks he sees them before him, or feels them in his body, though there be no such thing. But although a man be asleep, and doate*, he cannot feel himself sad or moved with another passion, but it is most true that the soul has in it that passion.
*"Doate," a variation of "dote" which means to be silly, deranged, or out of one's wits.
The 27th Article
The definition of the passions of the soul.
After we have thus considered wherein the passions of the soul differ from all other thoughts, me thinks they may be generally defined thus: apprehension, resentments, or emotions of the soul, attributed particularly to it, and caused, fomented, and fortified by some motion of the spirits.
The 28th Article
An explication of the first part of the definition.
They may be called apprehensions when this word is used in a general sense to signify all thoughts that are not actions of the soul, or the wills, but not then when it only signifies evident knowledge. For experience shows us that those who are most agitated by their passions are not such as understand them best, and that they are in the catalogue of those apprehensions which the alliance between the soul and the body renders confused and obscure. They may also be called resentments because they are received into the soul in the same manner as the objects of the exterior senses, and are not otherwise understood by her. But they may justlier* be styled the emotions of the soul, not only because this name may be attributed to all the mutations befalling her, (that is all the various thoughts thereof) but particularly, because, of all kinds of thoughts that she can have, there are many that agitate and shake it so hard as these passions do.
*i.e., "more justly".
The 29th Article
An explication of the other part.
I add that they are attributed particularly to the soul to distinguish them from other resentments relating, some to exterior objects, as smells, sounds, colours; the others, to our body, as hunger, thirst, pain. I also subjoin that they are caused, fomented, and fortified by some motion of the spirits to distinguish them from our wills, which cannot be called emotions of the soul attributed to her but caused by herself; as also to unfold their last, and immediate cause that distinguishes them (again) from other resentments.
The 34th Article
How the soul and the body act one against another.
Let us then conceive that the soul holds her principal seat in that little kernel in the midst of the brain, from whence she diffuses her beams into all the rest of the body by intercourse of the spirit, nerves, yea and the very blood, which participating the impressions of the spirits, may convey them through the arteries into all the members. … Let us here add, that the little kernel which is the chief seat of the soul hangs so between the cavities which contain these spirits, that it may be moved by them as many several fashions as there are sensible diversities in objects. But withal, that it may be moved several ways by the soul too, which is of such a nature, that she receives as many various impressions (that is, has as many several apprehensions) as there come several motions into this kernel. As also on the other side, the machine of the body is so composed that this kernel being only divers ways moved by the soul, or by any other cause whatsoever, it drives the spirits that environ it towards the pores of the brains, which convey them by the nerves into the muscles by which means it causes them to move the members.
The 39th Article
How the same cause may excite divers passions in divers men.
The same impression that the presence of one formidable object works upon the kernel and which causes fear in some men may in others rouse up courage and boldness. The reason whereof is that all brains are not alike disposed, for the same motion of the kernel, which in some excites fear, in others causes the spirits to enter into the pores of the brain, which convey them, part into the nerves which serve to use the hands for defense, and partly into those which agitate, and drive the blood towards the heart, in that manner as is required to produce spirits proper to continue this defense, and retain a will to it.
The 40th Article
What the principal effect of the passions is.
For it must be observed that the principal effect of all the passions in men is, they incite and dispose their souls to will the things for which they prepare their bodies so that the resentment of fear incites him to be willing to fly; that of boldness, to be willing to fight, and so of the rest.
The 45th Article
What the power of the soul is, in respect of her passions.
Our passions also cannot be directly excited or taken away by the action of our will, but they may indirectly, by the representation of things which use[d] to be joined with the passions which we will have, and which are contrary to these we will reject. Thus to excite in oneself boldness, and remove fear, it is not enough to have a will to do so, but reasons, objects and examples are to be considered of, that persuade the danger is not great, that there is ever more security in defence than flight, that there is glory and joy in vanquishing, whereas there is nothing to be expected but grief and dishonour in flying and the like.
The 46th Article
What is the reason that hinders the soul from disposing her passions totally.
Now, there is a peculiar reason why the soul cannot suddenly alter or stop her passions, which gave me occasion to put formerly in their definition, that they are not only caused, but fomented, and fortified by some peculiar motion of the spirits. The reason is they are almost all coupled with some emotion made in the heart, and consequently in all the blood, and spirits too, so that till this emotion cease, they remain present in our thoughts just as sensible objects are present in them, while they act against the organs of our senses. And as the soul being very attentive on any other thing, may choose whether she will hear a little noise, or feel a little pain or no, but cannot keep herself from hearing thunder, or feeling fire that burns the hand so she may easily overcome the smaller passions, but not the most violent and strongest, until after the emotion of the blood and spirits is allayed. The most the will can do, while this emotion is in its full strength, is not to consent to its effects and to restrain divers motions whereunto it disposes the body. For example, if wrath makes me lift up my hand to strike, the will can usually restrain it. If fear incites my legs to fly, the will can stop them, and so of the rest.
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