The interpretation in which "man" refers to humankind and "son of man" to an individual person is from NOAB Ps 8:4 n. In the previous essay, we discussed a modern interpretation of "dominion over the works of thy hands".
For a survey of psychological theories the interested reader may wish to consult one of the textbooks of psychiatry, such as the comprehensive text of Kaplan and Sadock, or the shorter review by Goldman.
For a representative sample of the neurophysiological approach to behavior, see Winson. It is interesting that he rejects Jung's concept of archetype as a "fanciful" concept "which can hardly be taken seriously today" (p. 146); but he also refers to "the evolutionary origin of dreaming" (p. 191), to "phylogenetically ancient mechanisms" in information processing in the unconscious (p. 209), and to experiments showing that individual neurons in the primary visual cortex are differentiated to respond most strongly to a single feature of a shape (p. 27).
All of those characteristics are consistent with and predicted by the archetypal theory. If individual differentiation of neuronal function is determined by genetic mechanisms, the "fit" of archetypal theory and neurophysiology becomes even closer. In dismissing Jung, Winson falls into the trap of confusing the physical and functional levels of description.
Midgeley's advocacy for an instinctual contribution to human behavior is increasingly being verified by studies which show the human personality to draw heavily from our genetic (archetypal?) endowment. Spiro's papers (somewhat more technical than most cited here) present an anthropological view by a distinguished anthropologist of the cultural dimensions of behavior. An example: "the minds of the Iatmul, the Ifaluk, and the Ifugao (and everyone else) work in accordance with the same principles ('the psychic unity of mankind')." (p. 46)
See Beck for an brief introduction to cognitive therapy. (The work cited applies it to marital counseling).
For a discussion about research goals in artificial intelligence see McCorduck. Regarding Allen Newell's "unified theory of cognition" see Waldrop.
Freud's Encyclopedia Britannica article on psychoanalysis is a good place to start in understanding his theory of the psyche. Freud's hostility to religious experience is evident in his Future of an Illusion, yet he surrounded himself (particularly in later life in his London home) with collected artifacts of primitive religions.
I believe that Jung's model offers a much more comprehensive and truer picture of human unconscious functioning. As I stated in the essay, it provides a matrix for understanding religious experience, and (as we shall see in the next essay) considerable utility for describing the relationship between psyche and ethic. However, we must acknowledge that Jung's theory is limited in dealing with cognitive ("Ego") function, and be willing to adapt it as new information develops. I do not accept the premise of some that "Jungianism" is a religion, though of course it is possible to make a religion out of any theory.
Stevens, an English Jungian psychiatrist, has given an excellent summary of archetypal theory in the light of recent neurological information. The reference to "biogrammar" is from page 267.
Jaynes offers an interesting discussion of the development of distinctive human consciousness, and also reviews evidence for the independent (but now coordinated) function of the left and right sides of the brain (the cognitive - intuitive duality). He holds that consciousness developed later than we think, in the period between the writing of the Iliad and the Odyssey. Whatever the date of the Psalms, I stick by my premise that the psalmist(s) and I are spiritual brothers!
Life systems science has given rise to a "biopsychosocial" model of medical practice, as an alternative to the excessively reductive emphasis on molecular biology of the "biomedical" model. (See Engel, and Bertalanffy cited in essay five.) This model emphasizes the inter-relationships between body, mind, family, and society and helps insure a comprehensive approach to clinical problem solving. The life systems approach seems to me to offer the best hope of synthesizing all of our knowledge of the total psyche, and is the approach I have worked with here, and in other writings.
For a whimsical but perceptive and seriously intentioned account of the problem of "What is Man?" (or more to the point, "Who am I"!), see Walker Percy's delightful Lost in the Cosmos.
For an exploration of the synthesis of Jungian and theological thought, see Victor White, who writes:
Our contention is that the meanings of the two sets of terms (the theological and the psychopathological) are, however, not mutually exclusive; and we would offer for expert consideration the suggestion that, while the meanings are different, each term may be, and commonly is, referable to the selfsame phenomenon or occurrence. (p 189)
References
Beck, Aaron T. Love is Never Enough. New York: Harper & Row,
1988.
Engel, G. L. "The need for a new medical model: a challenge for biomedicine. Science, 1977; 196: 129-136.
Freud, Freud. Psychoanalysis. Encyclopedia Britannica (14th Edition).
-- Future of an Illusion
Goldman, H. H. Review of General Psychiatry, 2nd Edition. Norwalk CT: Appleton & Lange, 1988.
Jaynes, Julian. The Origins of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976.
Jung, Carl G. et al. Man and His Symbols. New York: Doubleday, 1964.
-- Memories, Dreams, Reflections. New York: Random House/Vintage, 1965.
Kaplan, H. I. and Sadock, B. J. (editors). Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (4th Edition). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1985.
McCorduck, Pamela. McCorduck. Machines Who Think. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1979.
Midgley, Mary. Beast and Man: The Roots of Human Nature. New York: New American Library, 1978.
Pagels, Heinz R. The Dreams of Reason: The Computer and the Rise of the Sciences of Complexity. New York: Bantam/Simon & Schuster, 1989.
Penrose, Roger. The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds, and the Laws of Physics. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.
Percy, Walker. Lost in the Cosmos: The Last Self-Help Book. New York: Pocket Books, 1984.
Rand, Ayn. "Faith and Force: The Destroyers of the Modern World" (1960) in Philosophy, Who Needs It? New York: New American Library, 1982.
Spiro, Melford E. Culture and Human Nature (Theoretical papers edited by B. Kilborne and L. Langness.) Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987.
Stevens, Anthony. Archetypes: A Natural History of the Self. New York: Quill, 1983.
Waldrop, M. Mitchell. "Toward a unified theory of cognition" (Research News). Science 1988 (July 1); 241: 27-29.
-- "SOAR: A unified theory of cognition?" (Research News). Science 1988 (July 15); 241: 296-241.
White, Victor. God and the Unconscious (1952). Dallas: Spring Publications, 1982.
Winson, Jonathan. Brain & Psyche: The Biology of the Unconscious. New York: Vintage/Random House, 1986.
[ Exhibit 14. Jung's model
of the psyche ]
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